Sacsayhuaman, Peru
(Fig.5). A bright field microscope photograph of a mature plant stem showing the two main types of vascular tissue. Xylem tubes are made up of dead cells joined end to end with no end walls between them and a hole down the middle, they carry water and minerals from the roots to the stem and leaves in the transpiration stream. Phloem tubes, which are made up of living cells and allow nutrients to flow in both directions, they transport food substances (mainly dissolved sugars) made in the leaves to growing regions and storage organs. The networks of xylem and phloem are bundled together into arrangements called vascular bundles.
Nobody built the pre-Inca walls; they were once living biological structures.
We are looking at massive plant cell structure that has undergone Permineralization; a process involving Petrification, Silicification, and Lithification, meaning that the original organic material has become a composition minerals, crystals, and metals and now has the appearance of stone or rock.
The cell block structures here are almost identical to some modern plant species as you will see from the microscope images and diagrams.
The shapes expressed are mirrored throughout these pre-Inca structures in the cell-structure of modern flora, they are all naturally occurring patterns.
We can also see the short anatomical transition zones throughout the continuous tissue system (cell structure).
A sturdy extracellular matrix surrounds plant cells in the form of a cell wall; the cell wall is composed of a network of cellulose microfibrils and cross-linking glycans embedded in a densely cross-linked matrix of pectin polysaccharides. The epidermal cells (cell wall) are one cell thick and very tightly combined with a wax like outer layer to prevent water loss. A cortical array of microtubules can determine the orientation of newly deposited cellulose microfibrils that control the directional of the cell expansion; these define the shape of the cell.
The patterns we observe within in the cell structure are a natural result of cell growth; the cell patterns change throughout the tissue system as they transition throughout the areas of specialised cells, we can see these areas are abundant around the pre-Inca sites.
Light Microscope
Sacsayhuaman, Peru
We can now start to get a good understanding of the strange textures across the face of the blocks. All of the bumps, creases, holes and 'knobs' that have researchers and experts so confused. It isn't surprising these anomalies inevitably lead them to speculate advanced or exotic processes employed by the ancient Inca to explain them. If we compare the image above of plant cell-structure under a bright field microscope to the notorious block-work of Sacsayhuaman visually, the similarities are overwhelmingly apparent. You will also see that all these anomalies are entirely consistent across all the pre-Inca sites.
(Fig.14). I believe that the creases we see across the face of some of the blocks are the remnants of the cytoplasmic strands and endoplasmic reticulum.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum; rough and smooth, Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is more tubular than rough, and both types consist of membrane-enclosed, interconnected flattened tubes. These form an interconnecting network that is found quite evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm.
(Fig.15). In some of the pre-Inca blocks, there is evidence of the remains of the mitochondria. In some cases, we may also be seeing stoma (a pore, found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs, that is used to control gas exchange) throughout these pre-Inca sites.
I believe that I can now identify the 'knobs' that protrude from the blocks and are so predominant throughout the sites. They are one of the most puzzling and talked about anomalies of these locations. They have always baffled me and the explanations offered although sometimes very impressive never rang true; until now.
The plant cell walls are regularly connected by membrane-lined co-axial channels called plasmodesmata (singular, plasmodesma). These channels perforate the plant cell walls connecting the chemical environments of adjacent cells. In the two microscope images below we can see the branched plasmodesmata in cross-sections of the plant cells. (Fig.16).We can see there appears to be a male and female side or direction to these connections between cells.
The configuration of the vascular bundles varies throughout different plant types and root systems. If you compare the microscope images to the structures in the pre-Inca 'wall' you can see that they are the same. We can also understand why some of the blocks appear to be fused together throughout these sites; this is consistent with biological-cell growth.
(Fig.9). We can see the remains of the exposed protoxylem. They are the transport systems that carry fluid and nutrients throughout the internal systems of the plant inside the vascular bundles. (Fig.10). Since the xylem and phloem carry water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant, it is not surprising that they look very similar to pipes. (Fig.11). Pieces of the xylem running up through the terraces have broken off and lay below, but some are still relatively intact.
Figure 6. Zea Mays Vascular Bundles (Immature vs Mature)
Figure 1. Angiosperm cell structure
(Fig.11). Taken from the lower terrace at Machu Picchu. We get a detailed look at the remains of these tube-like networks running throughout the cell-structure. The angle is approximately 40 degrees, and the lowest wall is at a similar angle. Here the question arises to whether this structure was alive when the stepped terraces were carved? I would say yes based on the evidence here alone. It appears that these terraces were originally cut, not constructed. We see later repair work done by the Inca and Spanish, but the original cell structure is easily distinguishable. It also appears that the original carvers here deliberately avoided the pipe-like xylem. Catastrophe, time and subsequent occupants result in the pieces of xylem and phloem lying below. It would have made perfect sense to leave these structures in place throughout the living organism to have this natural water delivery system and the bonus of super nutrients, while also keeping the structure alive, I consider that the sun temple may have been one of the collection points.
We can also see cell division; a way which a cell reproduces itself by mitosis. Are we looking at the mother or parent-cell; an original cell which splits into daughter cells by mitosis. (Fig.12). You can see where the larger block appears to be giving birth to smaller ones. In many areas, blocks remain fused together, and in others, the smaller blocks meet up perfectly with what is believed to be existing natural rock.
(Fig 17). We can see the remains of the plasmodesmata protruding from the blocks all around the various pre-Inca sites, either the outer blocks have been removed exposing the male side of the attachment, or the walls were still alive after being cut, and the plasmodesmata continued to grow out.
Inside wall of the Coricancha, Cusco, Peru
Cusco, Peru
Machu Picchu, Peru
Cusco
These plant cell elements are identifiable throughout the Pre-Inca sites, they are found everywhere throughout the various locations are recognisable as; endoplasmic reticulum, branched plasmodesmata, cytoplasmic strands, mitochondria, root-hair cells, microtubules, and stomata.
'Male.'
'Female.'
Development and function of plasmodesmata
Refarance - Botanica Marina 2015; 58(3): 229–238. Chikako Nagasato, Makoto Terauchi, Atsuko Tanaka and Taizo Motomura.
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Sacsayhuaman
Cusco, Peru
Machu Picchu, Sun Temple
Sacsayhuaman, Peru
Unlike animal cells, plant cells contain more parts; the extra components animal cells don't have are rigid cell walls made of cellulose, which support and strengthen the cell. Storage compartments termed permanent vacuoles that contain cell sap (a weak solution of sugars and salts). Chloroplasts; these are where photosynthesis occurs; the chloroplasts contain a substance called chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight and uses its energy to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose and release oxygen as a by-product.
In a vacuolated plant cell, restricted thin layers within the cell cortex and around the nucleus contains the cytoplasm that is linked together by trans-vacuolar cytoplasmic strands. Plasmodesmata, plasma membrane lined cytoplasmic channels in cell walls connect the cell environments.
The evidence suggests that a giant eco-system covered the earth at one time in our distant past. There must have been very different conditions on earth to allow flora of this size to be possible. These organisms could have reached many miles into the air. I will also show you examples of what I consider to be ancient lithified fruit, seeds, pollen, and spores of gigantic proportions as we continue to build a picture of how this time in our distant past would have looked. I have also found evidence lithified animal parts that look anatomically identical to the modern species we see today, but they are many times bigger. It's probable that everything was submerged for a period (unknown) to allow these biological structures to become permineralized. I believe we could be looking at the enormous remnants of a pre-historical pre-flood earth. I base this belief on what we currently understand about the lithification process and somewhat on the convergent themes of flood myths. These stories of an extinction level event can be found throughout ancient texts, epic tales and religious scripture from different civilisations and cultures all over the earth. It appears that the people who were carving into these structures were doing it while they were still soft, malleable and easy to cut and slice; possibly while these large organisms were still alive.
There are many examples of extended precision 'stonework' by ancient cultures all over the earth, and all these cultures neither had the tools, workforce or time to complete the massive amounts of structure we see, especially if they were working with hard stones like granite. Before I go too far into a theory of the ancient megalithic builders/carvers, let's look at some more geology-biology.
Pre-Inca, Peru
Arizona, United States
Bright Field Microscopy
Sacsayhuaman, Peru
By comparing the cell structure of angiosperms, or flowering plants (fig.1) to the cyclopean polygonal walls (fig.2), we can identify various areas of complex cell-structure within the Inca block composition.
Sacsayhuaman, Peru
Pre-Inca, Peru
Microscope, plant cells
Figure 2. Cusco, Peru
(Fig.1&2). We can see the arrangement of the sieve tube which consists of sieve tube cells. Tiny pores called sieve plates connect the separated cell environments allowing transport through the cytoplasm by diffusion and active transport.
The level of consistency with complex plant cell structure should leave us with no doubt to the original nature of these structures. The edifices in Peru appear to be the remains of gigantic angiosperms with astounding amounts of complex carving around some areas.
Sieve tube cell
Companion cell
Sieve tube cell
Companion cell
The companion cells are thought to regulate the flow of nutrients through the sieve tube and are found adjacent to the sieve tube cells with a flower-like arrangement. Only in angiosperms are sieve tubes and companion cells present in the phloem, in other vascular plants, parenchyma cells function in the same way as companion cells.
(Fig.3). A comparison of the different cell-configurations throughout the various transitional areas of plant tissue compared to the cyclopean polygonal 'stonework' of the pre-Inca. You will notice that in some regions the blocks are very straight and brick-like, while other areas have large vessel elements where we see the megalithic block 'Puma paw' shapes expressed. The xylem-rays could resemble a snake; flower and puma paw type shapes are abundant throughout the entire cell-block structure. In some places, the intercellular spaces between the cell structure are quite large compared to the tight fitting areas. The cells-blocks can also change as rapidly in size over the transitional areas as they do in shape.
Light Microscope (Angiosperm cells)
Pre-Inca, Bolivia
(Fig.4). In Cusco, Peru we have a perfect example of extraordinary amounts of precise carving into the cell structure. Vascular bundled are identifiable and distributed throughout the cell system as would be expected. Large quantities of vascular tissue with precisely abutting and fused blocks are visible throughout the structure also.
Cusco, Peru
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Sieve tube cell
Companion cell
Tracheid
Vessel element
Sieve tube cell
Companion cell
Tracheid
Vessel element
Protoxylem (Lacuna)
Figure 7. Protoxylem. (lacuna)
(a series of perforated sieve tube element cells are placed end to end to form a continuous tube)
(Fig.4). We can continue to identify more complex areas of specialised cells within the temple walls with the correct cells in the proper configurations and proportions relative to the size of the structure.
(Specialized parenchymal cells found adjacent to a sieve tube in the phloem of flowering plants)
(a type of water-conducting cell in the xylem which lacks perforations in the cell wall)
(plant tissues. (general) A small depression, empty space, or cavity)
(a vessel-element or vessel member is one of the cell types found in xylem, the water conducting tissue of plants.
Figure 10.
Figure 9.
Figure 13. Endoplasmic reticulum
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Mitochondria
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 7 A. Vessel element diagram.
Figure 7 B. Water Temple
(Fig.8). The temple of the sun, Machu Picchu, Peru. The semi-circular structure is said to have been constructed within and over the existing hard rock formations.
In actuality, we have a clear example of significant amounts of accurate carving throughout the xylem and vascular bundle areas. It appears that there was some precise removal of material from the side of the xylem, possibly to allow access.
(Figure 8). Temple of the sun, Peru
(Fig.8A). With a top view of the temple of the sun, the remains of the pipe-like xylem are visible protruding from the floor of the upper part of the room shaped structure. It seems to me that there was a deliberate manner of carving throughout Machu Picchu, in some cases, it appears that the carvers were paying careful consideration to the vital areas of the plant, and possibly taking advantage of the internal pipework as a water delivery system.
(Figure 8A). Top view of the temple of the sun
Figure 12.
(Figure 8B).
(Fig.8B). We can see some light impressions from block structure that would have sat on top of the xylem. Towards the front, some pieces have broken off, but there is some definite carving into the structure. A carved 'U' shaped channel runs to the end where it meets the remains of a hole; then another channel is carved below which slopes off to the right.
Protoxylem (Lacuna)
Cusco, Peru
Water Temple
Water Temple
Biological vs. Human construction